In this way we create thresholds which we use in conjunction with the final predictions of the model: if the predicted label is below the threshold of the relative class, we refuse to make a prediction. It can be explained away with infinite training data. For this experiment, I used the frozen convolutional layers from Resnet50 with the weights for ImageNet to encode the images. Just like in the paper, my loss function above distorts the logits for T Monte Carlo samples using a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and the predicted variance and then computes the categorical cross entropy for each sample. For example, I could continue to play with the loss weights and unfreeze the Resnet50 convolutional layers to see if I can get a better accuracy score without losing the uncertainty characteristics detailed above. I trained the model using two losses, one is the aleatoric uncertainty loss function and the other is the standard categorical cross entropy function. Bayesian probability theory offers mathematically grounded tools to reason about model uncertainty, but these usually come with a prohibitive computational cost. These deep architectures can model complex tasks by leveraging the hierarchical representation power of deep learning, while also being able to infer complex multi-modal posterior distributions. The logits and variance are calculated using separate Dense layers. a classical study of probabilities on validation data, in order to establish a threshold to avoid misclassifications. However such tools for regression and classification do not capture model uncertainty. This is done because the distorted average change in loss for the wrong logit case is about the same for all logit differences greater than three (because the derivative of the line is 0). It took about 70 seconds per epoch. In Figure 2 right < wrong corresponds to a point on the left half of Figure 1 and wrong < right corresponds to a point on the right half of Figure 2. I am currently enrolled in the Udacity self driving car nanodegree and have been learning about techniques cars/robots use to recognize and track objects around then. 'rest' includes all of the other cases. # In the case of a single classification, output will be (None,). I could also try training a model on a dataset that has more images that exhibit high aleatoric uncertainty. The aleatoric uncertainty loss function is weighted less than the categorical cross entropy loss because the aleatoric uncertainty loss includes the categorical cross entropy loss as one of its terms. I expected the model to exhibit this characteristic because the model can be uncertain even if it's prediction is correct. When the predicted logit value is much larger than any other logit value (the right half of Figure 1), increasing the variance should only increase the loss. Shape: (N, C + 1), bayesian_categorical_crossentropy_internal, # calculate categorical_crossentropy of, # pred - predicted logit values. Visualizing a Bayesian deep learning model. Understanding if your model is under-confident or falsely over-confident can help you reason about your model and your dataset. Radar and lidar data merged into the Kalman filter. Shape: (N, C), # undistorted_loss - the crossentropy loss without variance distortion. This image would high epistemic uncertainty because the image exhibits features that you associate with both a cat class and a dog class. We compute thresholds on the first of the three cited distribution for every class as the 10th percentile. Our goal here is to find the best combination of those hyperparameter values. LIME, SHAP and Embeddings are nice ways to explain what the model learned and why it makes the decisions it makes. Our validation is composed of 10% of train images. If the image classifier had included a high uncertainty with its prediction, the path planner would have known to ignore the image classifier prediction and use the radar data instead (this is oversimplified but is effectively what would happen. "Illustrating the difference between aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty for semantic segmentation. In Figure 1, the y axis is the softmax categorical cross entropy. 1 is using dropout: this way we give CNN opportunity to pay attention to different portions of image at different iterations. Representing Model Uncertainty in Deep Learning Photo by Rob Schreckhise on Unsplash. The model's accuracy on the augmented images is 5.5%. they're used to log you in. A fun example of epistemic uncertainty was uncovered in the now famous Not Hotdog app. Figure 5 shows the mean and standard deviation of the aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty for the test set broken out by these three groups. ∙ 14 ∙ share . Aleatoric uncertainty is important in cases where parts of the observation space have higher noise levels than others. Taking the categorical cross entropy of the distorted logits should ideally result in a few interesting properties. See Kalman filters below). There are several different types of uncertainty and I will only cover two important types in this post. Bayesian statistics is a theory in the field of statistics in which the evidence about the true state of the world is expressed in terms of degrees of belief. 100 more probabilities for every sample. To do this, I could use a library like CleverHans created by Ian Goodfellow. 'right' means the correct class for this prediction. This article has one purpose; to maintain an up-to-date list of available hyperparameter optimization and tuning solutions for deep learning and other machine learning uses. The trainable part of my model is two sets of BatchNormalization, Dropout, Dense, and relu layers on top of the ResNet50 output. The softmax probability is the probability that an input is a given class relative to the other classes. The most intuitive instrument to use to verify the reliability of a prediction is one that looks for the probabilities of the various classes. It can be explained away with the ability to observe all explanatory variables with increased precision. For more information, see our Privacy Statement. Uncertainty is the state of having limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome. We use optional third-party analytics cookies to understand how you use GitHub.com so we can build better products. As a result, the model uncertainty can be estimated by positional indexes or other statistics taken from predictions in a few repetitions. Additionally, the model is predicting greater than zero uncertainty when the model's prediction is correct. When 'logit difference' is negative, the prediction will be incorrect. Bayesian statistics is a theory in the field of statistics in which the evidence about the true state of the world is expressed in terms of degrees of belief. Bayesian Deep Learning (MLSS 2019) Yarin Gal University of Oxford yarin@cs.ox.ac.uk Unless speci ed otherwise, photos are either original work or taken from Wikimedia, under Creative Commons license We load them with Keras ‘ImageDataGenerator’ performing data augmentation on train. medium.com/towards-data-science/building-a-bayesian-deep-learning-classifier-ece1845bc09, download the GitHub extension for Visual Studio, model_training_logs_resnet50_cifar10_256_201_100.csv, German Traffic Sign Recognition Benchmark. 1.0 is no distortion. increasing the 'logit difference' results in only a slightly smaller decrease in softmax categorical cross entropy compared to an equal decrease in 'logit difference'. I will continue to use the terms 'logit difference', 'right' logit, and 'wrong' logit this way as I explain the aleatoric loss function. Unlike Random Search and Hyperband models, Bayesian Optimization keeps track of its past evaluation results and uses it to build the probability model. To understand using dropout to calculate epistemic uncertainty, think about splitting the cat-dog image above in half vertically. modAL is an active learning framework for Python3, designed with modularity, flexibility and extensibility in mind. They can however be compared against the uncertainty values the model predicts for other images in this dataset. Learn more, We use analytics cookies to understand how you use our websites so we can make them better, e.g. I could also unfreeze the Resnet50 layers and train those as well. # Apply the predictive entropy function for input with C classes. Keras : Limitations. Therefore, a deep learning model can learn to predict aleatoric uncertainty by using a modified loss function. The solution is the usage of dropout in NNs as a Bayesian approximation. Teaching the model to predict aleatoric variance is an example of unsupervised learning because the model doesn't have variance labels to learn from. Whoops. The x axis is the difference between the 'right' logit value and the 'wrong' logit value. Original. Take a look, x = Conv2D(32, (3, 3), activation='relu')(inp), x = Conv2D(64, (3, 3), activation='relu')(x), https://stackoverflow.com/users/10375049/marco-cerliani. So if the model is shown a picture of your leg with ketchup on it, the model is fooled into thinking it is a hotdog. 12/10/2018 ∙ by Dustin Tran, et al. The first approach we introduce is based on simple studies of probabilities computed on a validation set. I was able to produce scores higher than 93%, but only by sacrificing the accuracy of the aleatoric uncertainty. The model trained on only 25% of the dataset will have higher average epistemic uncertainty than the model trained on the entire dataset because it has seen fewer examples. Below are two ways of calculating epistemic uncertainty. Before diving into the specific training example, I will cover a few important high level concepts: I will then cover two techniques for including uncertainty in a deep learning model and will go over a specific example using Keras to train fully connected layers over a frozen ResNet50 encoder on the cifar10 dataset. Introduction. 2 is using tensorflow_probability package, this way we model problem as a distribution problem. In addition to trying to improve my model, I could also explore my trained model further. Bayesian Optimization In our case this is the function which optimizes our DNN model’s predictive outcomes via the hyperparameters. Deep learning tools have gained tremendous attention in applied machine learning. Hopefully this post has inspired you to include uncertainty in your next deep learning project. In the paper, the loss function creates a normal distribution with a mean of zero and the predicted variance. My solution is to use the elu activation function, which is a non-linear function centered around 0. Grab a time appropriate beverage before continuing. The loss function I created is based on the loss function in this paper. Homoscedastic is covered more in depth in this blog post. # input of shape (None, ...) returns output of same size. Epistemic uncertainty is important because it identifies situations the model was never trained to understand because the situations were not in the training data. Test images with a predicted probability below the competence threshold are marked as ‘not classified’. Machine learning or deep learning model tuning is a kind of optimization problem. It offers principled uncertainty estimates from deep learning architectures. You can always update your selection by clicking Cookie Preferences at the bottom of the page. I chose a funny dataset containing images of 10 Monkey Species. Learn to improve network performance with the right distribution for different data types, and discover Bayesian variants that can state their own uncertainty to increase accuracy. When the 'wrong' logit value is less than 1.0 (and thus less than the 'right' logit value), the minimum variance is 0.0. You can notice that aleatoric uncertainty captures object boundaries where labels are noisy. Using Bayesian Optimization; Ensembling and Results; Code; 1. Note: When generating this graph, I ran 10,000 Monte Carlo simulations to create smooth lines. The 'distorted average change in loss' should should stay near 0 as the variance increases on the right half of Figure 1 and should always increase when the variance increases on the right half of Figure 1. link. I found increasing the number of Monte Carlo simulations from 100 to 1,000 added about four minutes to each training epoch. But upon closer inspection, it seems like the network was never trained on "not hotdog" images that included ketchup on the item in the image. We show that the use of dropout (and its variants) in NNs can be inter-preted as a Bayesian approximation of a well known prob-Dropout as a Bayesian Approximation: Representing Model Uncertainty in Deep Learning Learn to improve network performance with the right distribution for different data types, and discover Bayesian variants that can state their own uncertainty to increase accuracy. Image data could be incorporated as well. After training, the network performed incredibly well on the training set and the test set. # Input of shape (None, C, ...) returns output with shape (None, ...). Figure 3: Aleatoric variance vs loss for different 'wrong' logit values, Figure 4: Minimum aleatoric variance and minimum loss for different 'wrong' logit values. These two values can't be compared directly on the same image. Bayesian optimization is a probabilistic model that maps the hyperparameters to a probability score on the objective function. To enable the model to learn aleatoric uncertainty, when the 'wrong' logit value is greater than the 'right' logit value (the left half of graph), the loss function should be minimized for a variance value greater than 0. Self driving cars use a powerful technique called Kalman filters to track objects. With this example, I will also discuss methods of exploring the uncertainty predictions of a Bayesian deep learning classifier and provide suggestions for improving the model in the future. As I was hoping, the epistemic and aleatoric uncertainties are correlated with the relative rank of the 'right' logit. i.e. Feel free to play with it if you want a deeper dive into training your own Bayesian deep learning classifier. If you want to learn more about Bayesian deep learning after reading this post, I encourage you to check out all three of these resources. This is one downside to training an image classifier to produce uncertainty. Popular deep learning models created today produce a point estimate but not an uncertainty value. Probabilistic Deep Learning: With Python, Keras and TensorFlow Probability is a hands-on guide to the principles that support neural networks. Probabilistic Deep Learning is a hands-on guide to the principles that support neural networks. This is true because the derivative is negative on the right half of the graph. The higher the probabilities, the higher the confidence. The dataset consists of two files, training and validation. This dataset is specifically meant to make the classifier "cope with large variations in visual appearances due to illumination changes, partial occlusions, rotations, weather conditions". Above are the images with the highest aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty. 'second', includes all of the cases where the 'right' label is the second largest logit value. Unfortunately, predicting epistemic uncertainty takes a considerable amount of time. Figure 6: Uncertainty to relative rank of 'right' logit value. The Bayesian Optimization package we are going to use is BayesianOptimization, which can be installed with the following command, This procedure enables us to know when our neural network fails and the confidences of mistakes for every class. If my model understands aleatoric uncertainty well, my model should predict larger aleatoric uncertainty values for images with low contrast, high brightness/darkness, or high occlusions To test this theory, I applied a range of gamma values to my test images to increase/decrease the pixel intensity and predicted outcomes for the augmented images. If nothing happens, download the GitHub extension for Visual Studio and try again. Deep learning (DL) is one of the hottest topics in data science and artificial intelligence today.DL has only been feasible since 2012 with the widespread usage of GPUs, but you’re probably already dealing with DL technologies in various areas of your daily life. PS: I am new to bayesian optimization for hyper parameter tuning and hyperopt. Specifically, stochastic dropouts are applied after each hidden layer, so the model output can be approximately viewed as a random sample generated from the posterior predictive distribution.